The following are essay questions that I have used on exams in the past, and in some ways they may perhaps resemble questions that I might ask on the exam this semester. At the very least they give you examples of how I structure essay questions, as well as an idea of the intensity of my exams. All students should be able to write a competent essay on every one of these questions, as well as on any combination or permutation thereof, or indeed on any topic discussed in class or the assigned readings.
1. Describe and assess the Islamic conquests of Mediterranean, Middle Eastern and European civilizations from 632 through 1071, as well as the emergence of the Caliphate(s) in the conquered lands. What were the centers of power and authority of the Caliphates, their systems of government and administration, and the nature of the high civilization of the medieval Caliphate. What were some of the consequences of the conquests for the Roman and Persian Empires? For Spain and Western Europe? For the newly-conquered Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians, and other subjugated religious groups in these areas? Why does Sullivan say that the vitality and achievements of early Islamic civilization far exceeded that emerging in western Europe?
2.a. During the lifetime of Charlemagne, the Frankish realm was transformed from a petty Germanic kingdom into an Empire that claimed to be the successor of the Roman Empire. What do we mean by this? What changes did Charlemagne make that caused this transformation? What were the problems he faced at the beginning of this transformation? What problems was he ultimately unable to solve successfully? Who were his allies? Who were his enemies? How was the Carolingian Empire organized and administered? Why did it collapse in the decades after 843?
2.b. Describe and assess role of the Carolingians in European history from 618 through 888. Be sure to include in your discussion not only the main figures of Carolingian history, but also how the Carolingians made use of such things as the counts, the missi, the church, capitularies, the army, family members, the nobility, warfare, law, etc. How was the Carolingian Empire organized and administered? Why did it collapse in the decades after 843?
3. The agricultural revolution of Medieval Europe is ultimately connected with the rise of cities and towns, the re-emergence of extensive long distance trade, the birth of universities, the ability of European civilizations effectively to resist and repulse incursions by non-European civilizations, and the expansion of European civilization through the crusades. What were the essential elements of the agricultural revolution, including climatological, intellectual, and technological changes? What was the role of monasticism in furthering this revolution? How does an agricultural revolution ultimately lead to cities, universities, and crusades?
4.a. The period 900-1300 witnessed the emergence of territorial monarchies in western Europe. Discuss the various "state building" activities that occurred during the period in any three of the following monarchies: the Holy Roman Empire, England, France, Leon-Castile, Poland, Hungary, and Russia. What dynasties and monarchs are associated with each kingdom or empire? What problems did these dynasties and monarchs face as they attempted to consolidate and extend royal power and authority throughout their realms, and how did they deal with them? What governmental institutions or practices are characteristic of these realms, and which individual monarchs do we associate with these institutions and practices? Assess successes and failures.
4.b. Your textbook says that the Holy Roman Empire "represented an effort to realize a political ideal -- a Christian commonwealth uniting all Christian people under a single Christian prince through whose guidance God’s plan could be realized." Consider the Holy Roman Empire. Analyze and describe its rise and decline (962-1715), its organization and institutions, the leading individuals and dynasties in its history, its relationship with the Church, its internal struggles, and especially its theory of a universal commonwealth.
5. During the High Middle Ages (c. 1000-1300) the Church was perhaps the most influential institution in Western Civilization, and this period is commonly referred to as the Zenith of Western Christendom. In a well organized essay, discuss the formative and sustaining roles played in Western Civilization by any six of the following: scriptural exegesis, the liturgy (including sermons), the sacraments, canon law, lay piety, Marian devotion, veneration of the saints and other holy men and women, pilgrimages, the organization of the Church, the magisterium of the Church, the papacy, monasticism, the mendicant orders, universities, and scholasticism.
6. After centuries on the defensive against Muslim attacks and conquests, western Christendom mounted a series of counter-offensives against Islamic conquerors in the Middle East during the years 1095-1291, in addition to the Reconquista that had already begun in Spain. In a well-organized essay, discuss the origins, course, significant leaders, and major events of the Crusades. Why did the Crusades fail in the Middle East but succeed in Spain? What were some of the short term and long term consequences of the Crusades on Western Christendom and on the Islamicate?
7. Describe and assess the civilization, culture, and society of medieval Europe as presented in the poem Gawain and the Green Knight. You should not merely summarize the poem, but also consider in detail such issues as chivalry and courtliness, temptation, religion, landscapes and seasons, and the notion of faerie.
8. The later middle ages (1300-1453) have been called the "Age of Adversity." What was so adverse about this period? What were some of the crises that Western Europe had to face in these years? How were the important institutions of Medieval Civilization threatened? How did European civilization change after having confronted these crises? Be sure to consider in your answer not only the effects and consequences of these crises on the nobility and the clergy, but also their effects and consequences on the world of Cecilia Penifader, her family, and her village.
9. The period 1071 - 1699 witnessed a renewed Islamic assault on Western civilization, an assault led by the Turks, who ultimately destroyed the Byzantine empire, occupied southeastern Europe, and dominated the Mediterranean for centuries. In a well organized essay, describe this Islamic assault in terms of the most important military or political events and social movements. Who were the important Islamic leaders and dynasties? What European or Christian leaders and coalitions opposed this Islamic expansion? Why did some Protestant states support the Turks? What role did the sense of holy war play in this struggle? What was the fate of Christians and Jews in the conquered lands?
10. Discuss the Age of Discovery (15th & 16th centuries) in terms of (a) causes for renewed interest in European exploration, (b) the principal European nations involved and the regions they explored, and (c) the effects on both Europe and the "new" cultures of these discoveries. Why did the Muslim powers retreat in the Indian Ocean? Why were Spain and Portugal so successful in building overseas empires?
10a. Question on the European cities and civilizations of Spanish and Portuguese America from the beginnings through the early 1700s.
10b. Question on the activities and achievements of Jesuits, Dominicans, Franciscans, and other religious orders and missions in Spanish, Portuguese, and French America from the beginnings through the early 1700s.
11. Discuss the Protestant and Catholic Reformations in terms of (a) the religious, economic, and political issues, (b) the personality and religious ideas of rebels such as Martin Luther and reformers such as Ignatius Loyola, and (c) the new directions and renewed ancient traditions in Western Christianity (both Catholic & Protestant). What was the role of the German or English ruling classes in the emergence of Protestantism? What was the role of the Jesuits in the Reformation of Christendom? Why did Luther's followers kill so many Jews?
11a. Question on Society, Faith, and Culture in the Renaissance, Baroque, and Rococco periods of early modern Europe and in Latin America.
12. Using France (1643-1715) and Prussia (1640-1713) as examples of western and eastern patterns of absolutism, explain how they are similar to one another, and how they differ from one another. During the course of your discussion, be certain to consider the role of the standing army, the standing government, mercantilism, taxation, the nobility, religion, and wars of aggression in the development of these nation states. How did new nation states such as France and Prussia differ from the medieval and renaissance polities (such as the Holy Roman Empire) that preceded them?