Sumerian and Persian Gulf Geology I.Tigris & Euphrates River Valley A.Tigris River B.Euphrates River II.Persian Gulf Sea Levels A.Dry during last glaciation, 68,000 BC to 15,000 BC 1.Persian Gulf a fertile river valley B.Gradual refilling, in abrupt stages, 10,000 to 6,000 BC Old Sumerian Period, 3500 to 2500 B.C. III.Sumeria, General Remarks A.Resources & Trade 1.No timber, must be imported from Lebanon 2.No metals, must be imported from Anatolia & Iran 3.Little copper, imported from Oman (Magan) 4.Little stone, imported from Oman, Elam, Assyria, Indus 5.Mud (agriculture, bricks, pottery, tablets) 6.Access to the "Salt Sea" (fish, shells, trade) B.Cuneiform writing system (Amargi, Sumerian for freedom) C.Legal System 1.Anfractuous, class-based legal system 2.Slavery & serfdom widespread D.City States (Ur, Uruk, Lagash, Umma, Kish, etc) 1.Council of Elders a.Ensi (Mayor) b.Lugal (General) c.Patesi (Chief Priest) E.Sumerian Religion 1.Humans created to serve the gods, who demand worship 2.patron god/dess for each city a.Male gods tend to have female priesthoods (1)High Priestess is human wife of God (2)Priestesses may have been sacrificed in times of trouble or mourning (a)Great Death Pit at Ur may reflect this (b)Enheduanna's "Exaltation of Inanna" b.Female gods tend to have male priesthoods 3.Moon God very popular with powerful priesthood 4.Fertility goddess very popular with powerful priesthood 5.Ea/An/Enlil popular, sky god who likes mankind a.Lesser gods serve as intermediaries to Ea b.Marduk is the Son of Ea 6.Creation epic: Enuma Elish a.Recounts war between Marduk & Tiamat b.May recall the overthrow of matriarchy c.Similarities with Genesis 7.A hero's life: Epic of Gilgamesh a.Life's a bitch, and then you die b.What is important is how you face adversity c.Flood story similar to Genesis 8.Dismal afterlife a.Little punishment or reward b.Shivering in the darkness for most people c.Kings may expect a better afterlife 9.Ziggurat: step-pyramid surmounted by temple a.Platform allows the descent of the Gods to earth b.Depicted on early dynastic cylinder seals c.No pre-Sargonid ziggurats survive intact IV.Sumeria, Archaeology A.Ubaid Culture 1.Proto-Euphrates People, Non-Sumerian 2.Agricultural people, small urban centers w/ temples B.Sumerian arrival, c. 3500 1.Homeland probably in Iran near Caspian Sea 2.Sumerian Language a.agglutinative, unrelated to other ANE languages b.Some Ural-Altaic or Dravidian correspondences C.Late Uruk, c.3200 1.Stratified urban society, intense settlement 2.Cylinder Seals, Writing, Architecture, Art 3.Temples on high terraces (Anu Ziggurat at Uruk) D.Jemdet Nasr, C. 3000, ends with catastrophic flood, c. 2900 B.C. 1.Many older temples rebuilt (White Temple at Uruk) E.Kish, after c. 2900 1.Kingship begins anew after the flood 2.First Dynasty Kings have Semitic names V."Royal" Tombs at Ur, c. 2600-2500 B.C. A.Human Sacrifice (also at Kish & Susa) B."Royal Standard of Ur" [grave 779] VI.Kings and Queens or Kings and High Priestesses? A.Joint political/temple rule in City-States 1.Lugal usually married to the Priestess 2.Personification of Sacred Marriage? a.Queen Pu-Abi buried on a bed 3.Later rulers install daughters as High Priestesses Kings, Reformers, Conquerors and Emperors I.Ur-Nanshee, c. 2500, Lugal for life in Lagash II.Urukagina, c. 2350, Reforming Lugal/Ensi of Lagash A.Covenant with Goddess Ningirsu to rule well B.Lower taxes & user fees, equal pay for female officials III.Lugal-Zagessi of Uruk, c. 2350 A.Originally ensi of Umma B.Conquers Uruk, sacks Lagash C.Subdues Sumerian city-states, establishes brief empire IV.Akkadian Empire, 2370-2200 A.Akkadians: Semitic People who settle near Babylon B.Sargon of Akkad, c. 2370 - 2315 1.Birth & Upbringing of the hero 2.Cup-bearer to Ur-Zababa, King of Kish 3.Breaks away from Kish, establishes city of Agade 4.Defeats & captures Lugal-Zagessi of Uruk 5.Gradually conquers Sumerian city states a.Washes his sword in the Southern Sea 6.Empire from Mediterranean Sea to Persian Gulf 7.Daughter Enheduanna: High Priestess of Moon God in Ur a.Wrote hymns of praise, some have survived b.One hymn may describe a ritual sacrifice of priestesses, similar to "Death Pit" at Ur C.Naram-Sin of Akkad, c. 2250 1.Daughter Enmenanna: High Priestess of Moon God in Ur 2.War in Zagros, Elam, Makkan: gradually loses control a.Conquered lands all rebel V.Neo-Sumerian Renaissance, 2140-2004 A.Gudea, Patesi of Lagash 1.Great builder, left many dedicatory inscriptions, sculptures, renewed canals 2.Probably a local dynast with good connections rather than a wide-ranging emperor 3.Yet, he did go to war against Elam & Magan 4.Succeeded by his son, Ur-Ningirsu, grandson Pirigme, then his brother-in-law Nammahani B.Era of renewed Sumerian cultural and political dominance C.Neo-Sumerian Empire, 2114-2004 1.New "Golden Age" of Sumerian civilization a.Gilgamesh, other epics written down b.Dissemination of Sumerian Culture in ANE 2.Third Dynasty of Ur a.Ur-Nammu (builds Ziggurat at Ur) 3.Elamites sack Ur in 2004, Ibbi-Sin carried to Arshan, near Susa Old Babylonia, 1900 - 1200 I.Amorites, a Semitic people, settle in Babylonia A.Absorbed much Sumerian culture B.Hammurabi of Babylon, c. 1792-1750 1.Builds regional empire a.has to scramble to survive first 20 years b.then conquers Larsa, Assyria, Mari, Sumeria 2.Law Code of Hammurabi a.Harsh in some respects, Eye for Eye b.Intended to mitigate excessive retaliation C.Golden Age of art, science, trade, culture D.Hammurabi's descendants unable to maintain empire II.Spread of Sumero-Babylonian Culture to Syria, c. 1750-1250 A.Hurrians in NE Tigris (Nuzi) c. 1750 1.Hurrian language related to Urartian 2.Indo-Aryan presence, warrior elite (Not Indo- Iranian) 3.Indo-Aryan sky-god names: Mitra, Indra, Varuna 4.Horse/Chariot people B.Kingdom of Mitanni, c. 1600-1225 1.Armenia, NW Mesopotamia, Syria, Nuzi 2.Strong Hurrian presence 3.Strong Indo-Aryan presence (Not Indo-Iranian) 4.Indo-Aryan sky-god names: Mitra, Indra, Varuna, 5.Horse & Chariot people 6.Mitanni declines after 1350, eclipsed by 1250 a.Finally destroyed by Hittites Era of Small States, 1200 - 800 B.C. I.Phoenicians A.Semitic People B.Settle in Lebanon C.Sea Traders D.Innovators in Naval Technology E.Spread Alphabet F.Spread ANE Culture G.Many eventually Settle in N. Africa (Carthage) II.Aramaeans A.Semitic People B.Settle in Syria & N. Iraq C.Overland Traders (Caravans) D.Aramaean Language spread throughout ANE E.Spread Alphabet F.Spread ANE Culture III.Hebrews A.Semitic People B.Heavily Influenced by Egyptian Culture (Hyksos?) 1.Religious laws compiled by Moses, who had been an Egyptian prince 2.Hebrews continue to practice animal sacrifice 3.Evidence of occasional human sacrifice C.Settle in inland Palestine 1.Brutal conquest enslaves/massacres original inhabitants 2.Hebrew scriptures champion this brutality D.Davidic Kingship 1.Kingship handed down by God 2.King has a sacred duty to rule well 3.King accountable to God 4.Sacral Kingship via anointing E.Ethical Monotheism 1.Yahweh issues ethical code, demands obedience 2.Yahweh rewards obedience, punished disobedience 3.Radical monotheism after contact with Mazdeans F.Religion as Identity 1.Chosen People 2.Abrahamic Covenant 3.Promised Land G.Spread Concept of Ethical Monotheism 1.Usually tied to Hebrew scriptures 2.But Persians also disseminate ethical monotheism IV.Indo-Europeans A.Languages B.Sky-God religions C.Steppe Horsemen & Charioteers D.Shaft-Hole Axes E.Many Invasions of ANE, Europe, India, Africa F.Hittites, Kassites, Greeks, Aryans, Celts, Etc. G.Medes & Persians from Eurasian steppe settle in Iran H.Ethical Monotheism develops among I-E Iranians I.Indo-European sky-god > Monotheist God Ahura-Mazda Ancient Near Eastern Empires I.Assyrian Empire, c. 800 - 612 B.C. A.Ashur (name of chief city & of Assyrian God) B.Engineering C.Bureaucracy & Organization D.Iron (Nuclear Weapons of 13th Century B.C.) E.Major expansion in 8th century B.C. 1. Tiglath-Pilesir III (745 - 727 B.C.) 2. Sargon II (721 - 705 B.C.) F.Conquer ANE (by 721) & Egypt (by 660) G.Assyria at Peak in 7th century B.C. 1. Sennacherib (705 - 681 B.C.) 2. Esarhaddon (681 - 669 B.C.) 3. Assurbanipal (669 - 626 B.C.) H.Technology of Empire 1.Engineer Detachments in Army 2.Centralized Control via Military Occupation 3.Road-Building to Facilitate Army Movement 4.Try to Impose Ashur "monotheism" 5.Terror: destroy cities, mass crucifixions 6.Deportation: Hebrews of Israel (not Judah) I.General Rebellion in 612-605 II.Revival of Regional States, 612 - 550 B.C. A. 26th Dynasty in Egypt, "Saite" period 1. Psammeticus (663 - 609 B.C.) B. Kingdom of Lydia in Asia Minor 1. King Croesus (560 - 546 B.C.) C. Kingdom of the Medes in western Iran D. Chaldean or Neo-Babylonian Empire in ANE/Palestine 1.Nebuchadnezzar II (650 - 562 B.C.) a. deports Hebrews of Judah to Babylon 2. Tower of Babel 3. "Hanging Gardens" of Babylon III.Persian Empire, C. 550 - 330 B.C. A.560-545 Cyrus Conquers Medes & Lydians B.539 Cyrus Conquers Babylon C.Lets Hebrews resettle in Palestine 1.As a Zoroastrians, the Persians were sympathetic to and understanding of Hebrew monotheism 2.Post-Davidic Judaism may have refined many of its notions about strict monotheism after coming into contact with Zoroastrian or Mazdean monotheists a.Note radical monotheism of Second Isaiah b.Messianic anticipations similar to Mazdean anticipations of the Saoshyant D.Technology of Empire 1.Usually Did Not Sack Cities 2.Tolerant of local Traditions, Religions 3.Ethical Monotheism: Zoroastrianism 4.Cultural Pluralism 5.Could Be Brutal, but Terror NOT Normal Policy 6.Imperial Roads (for Military, also for Trade) 7.Imperial Post (Pony Express) 8.Coinage (Technology adapted from Lydians) E.Cambyses (530 - 522 B.C.) Conquers Egypt 1.Brutal & without foresight F.Darius the Great (522 - 486 B.C.) 1.Administrator & Multicultural Moralist 2.Believed that Ahura Mazda established him as Shah so that he might rule with justice and understanding 3.Fails to Conquer all of Greece, 490's